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Skull Anatomy: Neurocranium & Viscerocranium
Skull Anatomy: Neurocranium & Viscerocranium
Includes labeled diagrams, downloadable notes, anatomy quizzes, and interactive learning tools
The cranium, or skull, is the bony structure of the head. It supports the face and protects the brain. The skull is divided into two main parts:
facial bones (viscerocranium)
brain case (neurocranium).
The facial bones form the structure of the face. They create the nasal cavity, hold the eyeballs in place, and support the teeth in the upper and lower jaws.
The brain case is rounded and surrounds the brain. It protects the brain and also contains structures of the middle and inner ear.
In an adult, the skull has 22 bones.
21 bones are fixed and joined together.
1 bone moves, which is the mandible.
Bones of the Neurocranium
The brain case surrounds and protects the brain. It is made of eight bones: two parietal bones, two temporal bones, one frontal bone, one occipital bone, one sphenoid bone, and one ethmoid bone.
The space inside it is called the cranial cavity, which is mostly filled by the brain.
The top of the skull is called the calvaria (skullcap). It forms the roof and sides of the brain case. These bones are often called the flat bones of the skull.
The bottom of the brain case is called the base of the skull. It is complex and contains many openings that allow cranial nerves, blood vessels, and the spinal cord to pass through.
Parietal Bone
The parietal bones form most of the upper sides of the skull. There are two of them, one on the right and one on the left. Each bone is irregularly quadrilateral in form, and has two surfaces, four borders, and four angles.
The external surface is convex, smooth, and marked near the center by an eminence (the parietal eminence). Crossing the middle of the bone in an arched direction are two curved lines, the superior and inferior temporal lines:
the superior temporal line gives attachment to the temporal fascia.
the inferior temporal line indicates the upper limit of the muscular origin of the Temporalis.
The frontal angle is practically a right angle, and corresponds with the point of meeting of the sagittal and coronal sutures.
The sphenoidal angle, thin and acute, is received into the interval between the frontal bone and the great wing of the sphenoid. Its inner surface is marked by a deep groove for the anterior divisions of the middle meningeal artery.
The occipital angle is rounded and corresponds with the point of meeting of the sagittal and lambdoidal sutures.
The mastoid angle articulates with the occipital bone and with the mastoid portion of the temporal.
Each parietal bone connects with: the frontal bone in front, the temporal bone below, and the occipital bone behind.
Temporal Bone
The temporal bone forms the lower sides and part of the base of the skull. It consists of several parts, including the squamous, mastoid, petrous, and tympanic parts, as well as the styloid process.
The squamous part is the flat, thin upper part of the bone. It forms part of the temporal fossa and provides attachment for the temporalis muscle. Extending from it is the zygomatic process, which contributes to the zygomatic arch and connects with the cheekbone.
This area also includes the mandibular fossa and articular tubercle, which together form part of the temporomandibular joint where the mandible articulates with the skull.
The mastoid part forms the posterior part of the bone. Its most notable feature is the mastoid process, a large, downward-projecting bump located behind the ear that serves as an attachment point for several neck muscles. Inside, it contains air-filled spaces called mastoid air cells, which communicate with the middle ear.
The petrous part is a dense, pyramid-shaped part of the bone located at the base of the skull. It houses the structures of the middle and inner ear, including important canals and openings such as the internal acoustic meatus, which transmits nerves related to hearing and balance.
The tympanic part surrounds the external acoustic meatus, forming most of the ear canal. This canal leads inward to the tympanic membrane (eardrum).
Several important openings and structures are found in the temporal bone. The external acoustic meatus is the ear canal, while the internal acoustic meatus allows passage of nerves to the inner ear. The stylomastoid foramen transmits the facial nerve, which controls facial muscles. The carotid canal carries the internal carotid artery into the skull to supply the brain. The styloid process is a thin, pointed projection that provides attachment for muscles and ligaments associated with the tongue and throat.
Frontal Bone
The frontal bone forms the forehead and the upper part of the skull. It also forms the roof of the eye sockets (orbits) and part of the floor of the anterior cranial cavity, which holds the front part of the brain.
Between the eyebrows is a smooth area called the glabella. Above the eye sockets are rounded areas called the frontal eminences, and below them are the superciliary arches, which are usually more prominent in males.
The upper edge of each eye socket is called the supraorbital margin. Near the middle of this margin is the supraorbital foramen (or notch), which allows nerves and blood vessels to pass to the forehead. The outer end of this margin forms the zygomatic process, which connects to the cheekbone.
Between the orbits, the bone forms the nasal part, which connects with the nasal bones and helps form the bridge of the nose. A downward projection called the nasal spine contributes to the nasal septum.
The inner surface of the frontal bone is concave and shaped to fit the brain. It has a groove called the sagittal sulcus for a large vein and a ridge called the frontal crest for attachment of brain membranes. A small opening called the foramen cecum may allow a vein to pass.
The horizontal part of the frontal bone consists of two orbital plates, which form the roof of the orbits. Their lower surfaces are smooth and contain a lacrimal fossa for the tear gland and a small area for muscle attachment. Their upper surfaces have shallow depressions for the brain.
Between the orbital plates is the ethmoidal notch, which is filled by the ethmoid bone. This area helps form ethmoid air cells and contains small canals for nerves and blood vessels.
The frontal bone also contains the frontal sinuses, which are air-filled spaces that develop after birth, grow during childhood, and help reduce skull weight and affect the voice.
The borders of the frontal bone connect with nearby bones, including the parietal bones and the sphenoid bone, forming strong joints.
Occipital Bone
The occipital bone forms the back and lower part of the skull and contributes to the base of the skull. It is curved and contains a large opening called the foramen magnum, through which the spinal cord passes.
On each side of the foramen magnum are the occipital condyles, which connect the skull to the first cervical vertebra (atlas) and allow movements of the head.
The occipital bone has three main parts:
the squamous part at the back and upper portion
the lateral, or condylar, parts on each side of the foramen magnum
the basilar part located in front of the foramen magnum.
The squamous part is the large curved plate at the back of the skull.
On its outer surface, there is a central bump called the external occipital protuberance, which serves as an attachment point for neck ligaments. From this point, curved lines called the nuchal lines extend outward and provide attachment for neck muscles. A ridge called the median nuchal line runs downward to the foramen magnum.
The inner surface of the squamous part is deeply concave and divided into four areas. The upper areas hold the occipital lobes of the brain, while the lower areas hold the cerebellum. At the center is the internal occipital protuberance, and grooves around it contain major venous sinuses.
The lateral parts are located on each side of the foramen magnum. Each side has an occipital condyle, which forms a joint with the atlas and allows nodding movements of the head.
Above each condyle is the hypoglossal canal, which allows the hypoglossal nerve to pass. Behind each condyle is the condylar fossa, which may contain a small canal for a vein. The jugular notch contributes to the formation of the jugular foramen, which allows major veins and nerves to pass.
The basilar part lies in front of the foramen magnum and slopes upward. In young individuals, it is connected to the sphenoid bone by cartilage, but this later becomes bone in adults.
On its lower surface, there is a pharyngeal tubercle, which provides attachment for the pharynx and nearby muscles. The upper surface has a shallow groove that supports the medulla oblongata, which is part of the brainstem.
The occipital bone connects with several surrounding bones. It joins the parietal bones at the lambdoid suture, and it also connects with the temporal bones and the sphenoid bone.
Sphenoid Bone
The sphenoid bone is located in the center of the skull and acts as a keystone because it articulates with almost all other cranial bones. It contributes to the base and sides of the skull and has a shape often compared to a bat with its wings spread.
The bone consists of a central body, two greater wings, two lesser wings, and two pterygoid processes that project downward. The body is roughly cubical and contains air-filled spaces called the sphenoidal sinuses, which are separated by a bony septum.
On the superior surface of the body lies the sella turcica, a saddle-shaped depression that houses the pituitary gland.
In front of it is the optic groove, which leads to the optic canals for the optic nerves and ophthalmic arteries. Behind the sella turcica is the dorsum sellae, which provides attachment for the tentorium cerebelli.
The greater wings extend laterally and form part of the middle cranial fossa, the temporal fossa, and the orbit. They contain several important openings, including the foramen rotundum, foramen ovale, and foramen spinosum, which transmit branches of the trigeminal nerve and blood vessels.
The greater wings extend laterally and form part of the middle cranial fossa, the temporal fossa, and the orbit. They contain several important openings, including the foramen rotundum, foramen ovale, and foramen spinosum, which transmit branches of the trigeminal nerve and blood vessels.
The lesser wings are smaller projections that form part of the roof of the orbit and help define the superior orbital fissure, through which several cranial nerves pass.
The pterygoid processes descend from the junction of the body and greater wings. The right and left medial pterygoid plates form the posterior, lateral walls of the nasal cavity. The somewhat larger lateral pterygoid plates serve as attachment sites for chewing muscles that fill the infratemporal space and act on the mandible.
The medial plate ends in a hook-like structure called the hamular process.
Ethmoid Bone
The ethmoid bone is a single, delicate bone located in the midline of the skull. It forms part of the roof and lateral walls of the upper nasal cavity, contributes to the upper portion of the nasal septum, and also helps form the medial wall of the orbit. In addition, it makes up a small part of the floor of the anterior cranial cavity.
The perpendicular plate of the ethmoid forms the upper part of the nasal septum, dividing the nasal cavity into two halves. On each side, the bone also forms the lateral walls of the upper nasal cavity.
From these walls extend the superior and middle nasal conchae, which are thin, curved projections that increase the surface area inside the nose and help with air filtration and humidification.
In the cranial cavity, the ethmoid contributes to the floor of the anterior cranial fossa. This region includes the crista galli, a small upward projection that serves as an attachment point for the membranes covering the brain.
On either side of it are the cribriform plates, which are thin and perforated with many small openings. These openings allow olfactory nerve fibers to pass from the nasal cavity to the brain, enabling the sense of smell.
The lateral parts of the ethmoid bone are located between the nasal cavity and the orbit. These portions help form both the lateral wall of the nasal cavity and the medial wall of the orbit. Within them are small air-filled spaces called ethmoidal air cells, which are part of the paranasal sinus system.
Bones of the Viscerocranium
The facial bones of the skull form the upper and lower jaws, the nose, nasal cavity and nasal septum, and the orbit. The facial bones include 14 bones, with six paired bones and two unpaired bones.
The paired bones are the maxilla, palatine, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal, and inferior nasal conchae bones.
The unpaired bones are the vomer and mandible bones.
Although classified with the brain-case bones, the ethmoid bone also contributes to the nasal septum and the walls of the nasal cavity and orbit.
Maxilla
The maxilla is a paired bone that forms the upper jaw, much of the hard palate, part of the floor of the orbit, and the lateral base of the nose. Together, the two maxillae contribute to several important cavities, including the oral, nasal, and orbital cavities.
Each maxilla consists of a central body and four processes: the zygomatic, frontal, alveolar, and palatine processes. The body is roughly pyramidal in shape and contains a large air-filled space called the maxillary sinus.
The anterior surface of the maxilla forms part of the face and shows several features related to the teeth and facial muscles. Just below the orbit is the infraorbital foramen, which allows passage of the infraorbital nerve and vessels that supply the cheek, upper lip, and nose. The curved lower margin of the bone forms the alveolar process, which contains sockets called alveoli that hold the upper teeth.
The orbital surface of the maxilla forms most of the floor of the orbit. It contains the infraorbital groove and canal, which carry nerves and vessels to the face. The medial or nasal surface contributes to the lateral wall of the nasal cavity and includes openings that connect to the maxillary sinus.
The infratemporal surface forms part of the infratemporal fossa and provides passage for nerves and vessels to the upper teeth. It also includes the maxillary tuberosity, a rounded area important for muscle attachment and articulation with nearby bones.
The palatine process extends medially from each maxilla and joins with its counterpart to form the anterior three-quarters of the hard palate. This structure separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity and plays an important role in speech and chewing. Near the midline is the incisive foramen, which allows passage of nerves and blood vessels.
The frontal process extends upward to help form the side of the nose and part of the medial wall of the orbit. The zygomatic process extends laterally to articulate with the cheekbone, while the alveolar process forms the tooth-bearing part of the upper jaw.
Palatine Bone
The palatine bone is a paired, irregularly shaped bone located at the back of the nasal cavity, between the maxilla and the sphenoid bone. It contributes to several structures, including the lateral walls of the nasal cavity, the floor of the orbit, and the roof of the mouth.
Each palatine bone has an L-shaped structure and consists of a horizontal plate, a perpendicular plate, and three processes: the pyramidal, orbital, and sphenoidal processes.
The horizontal plate is the largest part and forms the posterior quarter of the hard palate. It joins with the opposite side at the midline and helps separate the oral and nasal cavities. Its upper surface contributes to the floor of the nasal cavity, while its lower surface forms part of the roof of the mouth. The posterior edge provides attachment for the soft palate.
The perpendicular plate extends upward and forms part of the lateral wall of the nasal cavity. Its surface includes ridges that articulate with the nasal conchae and help form the nasal passages. It also contributes to the medial wall of the maxillary sinus and the pterygopalatine fossa.
The pyramidal process projects backward and fits between the pterygoid plates of the sphenoid bone. It helps form parts of the infratemporal and pterygoid regions and contains openings for small nerves.
The orbital process extends upward to form a small part of the floor of the orbit and may contain an air cell that communicates with nearby sinuses. The sphenoidal process projects toward the sphenoid bone and contributes to the lateral wall of the nasal cavity and nearby canals.
Zygomatic Bone
The zygomatic bone, also known as the cheekbone, is a paired bone located at the upper and lateral part of the face. It forms the prominence of the cheek and contributes to the lateral wall and part of the floor of the orbit, as well as to the temporal and infratemporal fossae.
Each zygomatic bone has two main surfaces: the lateral (facial) surface, the temporal surface, and the orbital surface. The lateral surface is convex and contains the zygomaticofacial foramen, which allows passage of a nerve and blood vessels to the face. This surface also provides attachment for facial muscles.
The temporal surface faces backward and inward and helps form parts of the temporal and infratemporal fossae. It contains the zygomaticotemporal foramen for the passage of a nerve.
The bone has four processes: the frontal, orbital, maxillary, and temporal processes. The frontal process articulates with the frontal bone. The orbital process contributes to the floor and lateral wall of the orbit and contains small openings for nerves. The maxillary process connects with the maxilla, while the temporal process extends backward to join the temporal bone, forming the zygomatic arch.
The borders of the zygomatic bone help define the shape of the orbit and provide attachment points for muscles such as the masseter and temporalis fascia.
Nasal Bone
The nasal bones are a pair of small bones located at the upper and middle part of the face. They join together at the midline to form the bony bridge of the nose and support the cartilage that shapes the rest of the nose. These are the bones commonly broken in nasal injuries.
Each nasal bone is small and oblong in shape and has two surfaces. The outer surface is slightly curved and covered by facial muscles. It also contains a small foramen that allows passage of a vein. The inner surface is concave and has a groove for a branch of the nasociliary nerve.
The nasal bones have four borders that connect with surrounding structures. The superior border articulates with the frontal bone, while the lateral border connects with the maxilla. The medial borders of the two nasal bones meet at the midline and form a crest that contributes to the nasal septum. The inferior border provides attachment for the nasal cartilage.
Lacrimal Bone
The lacrimal bone is a small, rectangular paired bone located at the front part of the medial wall of the orbit. It helps form the inner corner of the eye socket and plays an important role in tear drainage.
Each lacrimal bone has two surfaces. The lateral (orbital) surface faces the eye and is divided by a vertical ridge called the posterior lacrimal crest. In front of this crest is a groove that helps form the lacrimal fossa, which holds the lacrimal sac. This sac collects tears and drains them into the nasolacrimal duct, which carries fluid into the nasal cavity. The area behind the crest is smooth and contributes to the medial wall of the orbit.
The medial (nasal) surface faces the nasal cavity and helps form part of the middle nasal passage. It also contributes to the walls of nearby air cells within the ethmoid bone.
The lacrimal bone has four borders that connect with surrounding bones. It articulates with the frontal bone above, the maxilla in front, the ethmoid behind, and the inferior nasal concha below. A small downward extension helps form part of the nasolacrimal canal.
Inferior Nasal Conchae
The inferior nasal conchae are a pair of curved bones that project from the lower lateral walls of the nasal cavity. They are the largest of the nasal conchae and can be easily seen when looking into the nose.
Each concha is a thin, scroll-shaped plate of bone that extends horizontally along the nasal cavity.
The medial surface is convex and contains grooves and small openings for blood vessels, while the lateral surface is concave and helps form the inferior nasal passage (inferior meatus).
The upper border attaches to surrounding bones, including the maxilla, palatine, ethmoid, and lacrimal bones. It also has small processes that help form structures such as the nasolacrimal canal and part of the maxillary sinus.
The lower border is free and thicker, and the ends of the bone taper to points.
Vomer Bone
The vomer is a single, thin bone located in the midline of the skull. It forms the lower and posterior part of the nasal septum, which divides the nasal cavity into left and right sides.
The vomer is roughly triangular or quadrilateral in shape and lies in the midline, although its front portion is often slightly deviated. Its surfaces contain small grooves for blood vessels and a larger groove that carries the nasopalatine nerve and vessels.
The superior border is thick and connects with the sphenoid bone, while the inferior border rests on the crest formed by the maxilla and palatine bones. The anterior border joins with the ethmoid bone and the septal cartilage, and the posterior border is free and separates the openings at the back of the nasal cavity.
Mandible
The mandible is the lower jaw and the only movable bone of the skull. It is the largest and strongest facial bone and holds the lower teeth. Although it begins as two separate bones at birth, these fuse early in life to form a single U-shaped structure.
The mandible consists of a horizontal body and two vertical rami. Where these meet is the angle of the mandible.
Each ramus has two upward projections: the coronoid process at the front, which provides attachment for chewing muscles, and the condylar process at the back, which forms the temporomandibular joint with the temporal bone, allowing the jaw to open and close. The depression between them is the mandibular notch.
The body of the mandible is curved like a horseshoe and has an external and internal surface. On the outer surface are features such as the mental protuberance (forming the chin) and the mental foramen, which allows nerves and vessels to pass.
The inner surface contains attachment points for muscles of the tongue and floor of the mouth, including the mylohyoid line.
The upper border of the body, called the alveolar process, contains sockets for the lower teeth, while the lower border is thicker and rounded.
The ramus has a lateral surface for muscle attachment and a medial surface that includes the mandibular foramen, an opening that leads to a canal carrying nerves and blood vessels to the teeth.
Orbit
The orbit is the bony cavity that contains the eyeball along with the muscles that move it and lift the upper eyelid. Each orbit is cone-shaped, with a narrow back (apex) and a wider front opening.
The thickened edges around the opening help protect the eye, while the outward angle of the lateral walls allows for a wider field of vision.
Each orbit is formed by seven bones: the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, lacrimal, maxilla, zygomatic, and palatine bones.
The frontal bone mainly forms the roof, the zygomatic bone forms the lateral wall, and the maxilla forms most of the floor. The medial wall is largely made by the ethmoid and lacrimal bones, while the sphenoid forms the posterior part of the orbit.
The orbit has four walls:
The roof (superior wall) is smooth and slightly concave, formed mainly by the frontal bone.
The medial wall is thin and mostly formed by the ethmoid and lacrimal bones, and includes a depression for the lacrimal sac.
The floor (inferior wall) is mostly formed by the maxilla, with small contributions from the zygomatic and palatine bones.
The lateral wall is the strongest, formed by the zygomatic bone and sphenoid, and helps protect the eye from injury.
At the back of the orbit is the optic canal, which allows the optic nerve to pass to the brain. Nearby is the superior orbital fissure, which transmits nerves and blood vessels involved in eye movement and sensation. There is also an inferior orbital fissure between the floor and lateral wall.
Nasal Septum
The nasal septum is the structure that divides the nasal cavity into right and left sides. It is made of both bone and cartilage. The upper part is formed by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone, while the lower and posterior part is formed by the vomer. The front portion is made of septal cartilage, which also helps separate the nostrils. In a dry skull, only the bony parts are visible.
Nasal Cavity
The nasal cavity consists of two spaces on either side of the septum. These extend from the front nasal opening to the back openings (choanae), which connect to the pharynx.
Each cavity is narrower at the top and wider at the bottom, and is surrounded by a roof, floor, and medial and lateral walls.
The roof is formed by several bones, including the nasal, frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones. The floor is formed by the maxilla and palatine bones and separates the nasal cavity from the oral cavity. The medial wall is the nasal septum itself. The lateral wall is more complex and includes contributions from the maxilla, ethmoid, lacrimal, palatine, and sphenoid bones.
Projecting from each lateral wall are three curved bony plates called the nasal conchae: the superior, middle, and inferior conchae. These increase the surface area of the nasal cavity and help swirl incoming air, allowing it to be warmed, moistened, and filtered. The inferior concha is a separate bone, while the superior and middle conchae are parts of the ethmoid bone.
Below each concha is a passageway called a meatus (superior, middle, and inferior meatus), which allows airflow and drainage from the paranasal sinuses. The inferior meatus also receives the opening of the nasolacrimal duct, which drains tears from the eye into the nasal cavity.
Cranial Fossae
The cranial fossae are three depressions on the floor of the cranial cavity that support different parts of the brain. They increase in depth from front to back and are divided into anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae.
The anterior cranial fossa is the shallowest and most forward region. It lies above the orbits and contains the frontal lobes of the brain.
It is mainly formed by the frontal bone, with the lesser wings of the sphenoid marking its boundary with the middle fossa. At the midline is part of the ethmoid bone, including the crista galli and cribriform plates, which allow passage of olfactory nerves.
The middle cranial fossa is deeper and located behind the anterior fossa. It contains the temporal lobes of the brain and has a butterfly-like shape due to the petrous parts of the temporal bones. At the center is the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone.
The posterior cranial fossa is the deepest and most posterior region. It contains the cerebellum and is mainly formed by the occipital bone. It is separated from the middle fossa by the petrous ridges.
The large foramen magnum is located here and allows passage of the spinal cord. Other important openings include the internal acoustic meatus for nerves related to hearing and balance, the hypoglossal canal for a nerve to the tongue, and the jugular foramen, which allows passage of major veins and cranial nerves.
The middle cranial fossa has several important openings:
The optic canal allows passage of the optic nerve.
The superior orbital fissure transmits nerves to the eye and forehead.
The foramen rotundum and foramen ovale transmit sensory nerves to the face and jaw.
The foramen spinosum allows entry of an artery supplying the brain coverings.
The carotid canal carries a major artery into the skull.
The foramen lacerum is present in the skull but filled with cartilage in life.
Sutures of the Skull
Sutures are immovable joints that connect the bones of the skull. They are formed by thin layers of dense connective tissue between adjacent bones. Instead of being straight, sutures follow irregular, interlocking patterns, which help strengthen the skull and protect the brain.
The major sutures on the skull include:
The coronal suture, which runs side to side and joins the frontal bone with the two parietal bones.
The sagittal suture, which runs along the midline on the top of the skull and connects the right and left parietal bones.
The lambdoid suture, located at the back of the skull, which joins the occipital bone with the parietal and temporal bones. It has an inverted “V” shape.
The squamous suture, found on the side of the skull, which connects the temporal bone to the parietal bone.
Another important region is the pterion, where four bones meet: the frontal, parietal, temporal, and sphenoid bones. This area is relatively weak and lies just above the zygomatic arch.
Need a recap? Take a look at the skull anatomy notes here.
Need a recap? Take a look at the skull anatomy notes here.
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References
References
Gray, H. (1918). Anatomy of the human body (W. H. Lewis, Ed.; 20th ed.). Lea & Febiger.
J. Gordon Betts, Kelly A. Young, James A. Wise, Eddie Johnson, Brandon Poe, Dean H. Kruse, Oksana Korol, Jody E. Johnson, Mark Womble, Peter DeSaix. (2013, April 25). Anatomy and Physiology. OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/7-2-the-skull.
Based on OpenStax, Anatomy and Physiology (2013), licensed under CC BY 4.0.
Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-introduction.
Content paraphrased; adaptations were made.
Sobotta, J. (1914). Atlas and text-book of human anatomy (J. P. McMurrich, Ed.; W. H. Thomas, Trans.). W.B. Saunders Company.
Image Credis
Image Credis
Images used in this guide and games are from the following source:
Sobotta, J. (1914). Atlas and text-book of human anatomy (J. P. McMurrich, Ed.; W. H. Thomas, Trans.). W.B. Saunders Company.
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